Plant diseases can cause severe damages to agricultural production. Timely and accurate identification of plant diseases is the basis and prerequisite for effective disease management. With the rapid development of information technology, the research and applications of plant disease identification by using image processing technology are increasing, which improves the levels of the monitoring and management of plant diseases and provides powerful supports for ensuring agricultural safety production. In this comprehensive review, the problems and challenges in the research and applications of plant disease image recognition were systematically discussed from the aspects of plant disease image recognition, disease image acquisition, disease image preprocessing, disease image segmentation, disease image feature extraction, disease image feature selection, disease image recognition models, and their practical applications. Simultaneously, the relevant solutions were proposed. Furthermore, the research and applications of plant disease image recognition in the future were prospected from the aspects including acquisition and management of plant disease images, key techniques for plant disease image recognition, and multi-platform plant disease image recognition. The aim of this review is to provide references for the research and applications of plant disease image recognition and to promote the development of plant protection informatization and smart phytoprotection.

Utilizing disease resistance genes, particularly those encoding NLR (Nucleotide-binding, leucine-rich repeat receptor) proteins, offers the most cost-effective strategy for crop disease management. These genes have become a major research focus in plant pathology due to their frequent identification and broad application potential in breeding disease-resistant crops. Key advances in NLR research include: 1) the efficient cloning of NLR genes and their corresponding pathogen avirulence (Avr) genes; 2) mechanistic insights into NLR activation pathways, such as resistosome-mediated calcium signaling and TNL (TIR-NB-LRR)-dependent production of NAD⁺-derived signaling molecules; and 3) innovative applications in molecular engineering, including chimeric protein engineering, cross-species resistance transfer, and co-transfer of helper NLRs. This review summarizes these advances and highlights future research directions by integrating high-throughput sequencing, artificial intelligence-based structural prediction, and gene editing to decode calcium signaling mechanisms and immune homeostasis regulation in NLR networks, thereby facilitating the development of durable and broad-spectrum disease-resistant crop varieties.

Diseases caused by oomycetes pose a substantial risk to agricultural production, establishing this pathogen as a principal research and control focus within agroforestry. To explore the status quo and future direction of the field of oomycetes, we used the Web of Science as our data source and conducted a bibliometric analysis of oomycete-related literature from 1985 to 2023. Additionally, CiteSpace was employed to create a knowledge graph, providing a visual representation of the findings. The publication volume analysis indicates a predominant research presence in countries such as the United States, China and Germany. Notably, China has demonstrated remarkable growth over the last five years, ascending to global prominence in this field by 2022. In terms of institutional contributions, the US Department of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, and the University of California system emerge as leading entities, both in publication volume and the impactful nature of their research. The hotspot analysis delineates that the field predominantly investigates ten specific types, including the Pythium spp., Phytophthora infestans, Ph. capsici and so on. Key research themes include systemic acquired resistance, climate change impact, and antibacterial activities. Furthermore, cluster analysis of literature co-citation unveils several evolving significant research directions within the oomycete fields, represented by RXLR effectors, convergent evolution, and virulence factors. Moreover, a detailed examination of highly cited literature underscores the raising interest in factor pathogenic mechanisms of effector, prevention and control of disease, biological control and immune signal regulation . These works are beneficial for new researchers of oomycetes to quickly understand the current research status and cutting-edge hotspots in this field, and provide some reference for predicting potential research directions of oomycetes.

In this study, the fungal strain LD-11 was isolated from the infected plant of Lonicera caerulea (cv Lanjingling) collected in the horticulture experimental station of Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province. The strain was identified as Epicoccum nigrum by morphology, rDNA-ITS, LSU, TUB, RPB2 gene sequence amplification and phylogenetic tree construction. The experimental results showed that E. nigrum LD-11 could grow on PDA, OA and MEA medium. The optimal culture medium was OA, and the optimal culture conditions were growth temperature of 25 ℃, pH 6, carbon source is starch and nitrogen source is yeast extract, and full light conditions were conducive to mycelial growth. This study is the first time to isolate and identify E. nigrum, the pathogen of leaf spot disease in L. caerulea, which will provide an important source of pathogenic fungi for future research on control of plant disease.

Plants and pathogens have developed a highly complex interactive relationship through long-term co-evolution, fundamentally driven by a molecular arms race between pathogen effectors and the plant immune system. Plants activate multilayered defense responses through their innate immune system to combat pathogen infection, while pathogens in turn have evolved diverse effectors that precisely target critical immune signaling nodes. These effectors not only interfere with fundamental immune pathways including PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI) but also modulate defense networks like plant hormone signaling and reactive oxygen species metabolism. More critically, pathogen effectors achieve systemic reprogramming of the host transcriptional network through strategies such as directly regulating host gene expression, targeting key transcriptional regulatory elements, manipulating epigenetic modifications, and post-transcriptional modifications, thereby facilitating immune evasion and pathogenic infection. Recently, there have been significant advances in understanding the pathogenic mechanisms of pathogen-mediated manipulation of plant immune responses. This review systematically examines the molecular mechanisms by which pathogen effectors regulate host immune responses through interfering with defense signaling pathways and reprogramming the host transcriptome. We also explore the application of these findings in developing disease-resistant materials, providing a theoretical foundation for elucidating plant-pathogen interactions and advancing disease-resistant crop breeding.

Purpureocillium lilacinum exhibits excellent biocontrol potential against various plant pathogenic nematodes. However, its field application is currently limited to conventional methods, such as root irrigation, broadcasting, and hole application, highlighting an urgent need to develop more efficient delivery systems. This study evaluated the compatibility of P. lilacinum strain 36-1 with 10 commercial water-soluble fertilizers (WSFs) through in vitro plate assays, pot experiments, and field trials, by examining fungal growth rate, conidiation capacity, spore viability, root colonization efficiency, and biocontrol efficacy against tomato root-knot nematode disease in an integrated water-fertilizer-biocontrol agent system. The results demonstrated that the four WSFs (Stanley, Lai Lv Shi, Alfam, and Miracle-Gro) exhibited relatively good compatibility with strain 36-1 within their commercially recommended concentration ranges. When these four WSFs were individually mixed with the fermentation filtrate of strain 36-1, they all enhanced the conidial survival rate and egg parasitism rate on Meloidogyne incognita of strain 36-1, without compromising its nematicidal activity. In tomato fields where root-knot nematode disease was severe (induced by artificial inoculation of M. incognita), the combined application of P. lilacinum strain 36-1 with Miracle-Gro (2.5 g·L^-1) or Lai Lv Shi (0.5 g·L^-1) under the integrated water-fertilizer-biocontrol agent system achieved control efficacies of 39.41% and 37.47% against root-knot nematodes, respectively. Although these values showed no significant difference (P<0.05) compared with the control efficacy of strain 36-1 applied alone, the tomato yield was increased by 34.64% and 28.44%, respectively. Therefore, integrating P. lilacinum into water-fertilizer systems can establish a simplified, eco-friendly water-fertilizer-biocontrol agent system to control crop nematode diseases.

Fusarium sacchari is one of the major pathogenic fungus that cause sugarcane pokkah boeng. In order to explore the function of metalloproteinase effector proteins in F. sacchari, we used the genomic data of F. sacchari to predict the secretory metalloproteinase proteins, and successfully amplified a zinc-type metalloproteinase effector protein gene Fs03538. The results showed that Fs03538 contained a typical ZnMc super family domain, and the 1-18 amino acid sequences at the N-terminal of the protein contain specific signal sequences. Subcellular localization showed that Fs03538 could be localized in the nucleus of Nicotiana benthamiana; qRT-PCR analysis showed that the expression level of Fs03538 was induced and reached the highest peak at 12 h post F. sacchari infection. Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transient expression system confirmed that Fs03538 could inhibit the necrosis of tobacco cells induced by mouse Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX). As compared with the wild type F. sacchari strain CNO-1, the Fs03538 knock-out mutant showed no significant difference on mycelial growth and conidia production, but the pathogenicity on sugarcane was significantly decreased. Taken together, the results of the study suggest that Fs03538 is an important virulence factor of F. sacchari, which highly expressed at the time of infection and could inhibit the host immune responses by entering the host cell nucleus.

Viral diseases in cucumber in Qudi are more and more serious in recent years. To detect and identify the main viruses, the plant samples of cucumber were collected from Qudi town, Jiyang district, and next-gene-ration sequencing technology (NGS), RT-PCR amplification and analysis of viral genome sequences were carried out. The results showed that the viruses infecting cucumber in the spring were cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV) and watermelon silver mottle virus (WSMoV). Besides CGMMV and WSMoV, cucumber plants in the autumn were also infected with zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV). The detection rates of CGMMV, WSMoV and ZYMV by RT-PCR were 68.2%, 45.5% and 50.0%, respectively, and the detection rate of complex infection was 50%. Genetic sequence analysis revealed that the coat protein (CP) gene sequence of CGMMV [JY2-6 (GenBank accession number: OR591512) isolated in this study was similar to the sequence of CGMMV [SDRZ (GenBank accession number: KX185151)] isolated from cucumber in Rizhao, and the identity was 100%. The nucleocapsid (N) gene sequence of WSMoV [JY2-4 (GenBank accession number: OR591517) isolated in this study was similar to the sequence of WSMoV [W6412 (GenBank accession number: AM113765)] isolated from watermelon in Thailand, and the identity was 99.1%. The CP gene sequence of ZYMV [JY2-7 (GenBank accession number: OR591522) isolated in this study was similar to the sequence of ZYMV [Yaz.Ashk.S.Z (GenBank accession number: KX495623)] isolated from cucumber in Iran, and the identity was 97%. This study demonstrated that the cucumber in Qudi was mainly infected by CGMMV, WSMoV and ZYMV, and complex infection was also common. This study provided a basis for virus prevention of cucumber in Qudi.

The development of plant diseases is not solely driven by plant-pathogen interactions but also arises from complex networks involving plants, pathogens, and microbiota, with microbe-microbe interactions playing a critical role. Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing and microbe-microbe interaction studies have highlighted the capacity of pathogens to reshape plant microbiome composition, influencing microbial diversity and revealing the function of the core microbiota under diseased conditions. During disease progression, microbial interactions, such as resource competition, contact-dependent interaction, and chemical signal interference, can either facilitate or suppress pathogen colonization and virulence. This review synthesizes current knowledge on microbiome structural dynamics during plant disease, examines the competitive and cooperative interactions between microbiota members and pathogens, and outlines promising future directions such as the strategic use of biocontrol agents and the exploration of biocontrol agent-pathogen and biocontrol agent-microbiome interactions. These insights provide a conceptual framework for improving plant disease management and designing microbiomes that promote plant health.

Plant secondary metabolites are a class of small-molecule compounds non-essential for fundamental plant growth and development, including phenolic, terpenoids, and nitrogen-containing compounds. As integral components of the plant defense system, these metabolites play a core regulatory role in plant-microbe interactions. Microorganisms can modulate the accumulation of plant secondary metabolites through various strategies, such as activating the plant immune system or secreting plant hormones. Meanwhile, secondary metabolites can inhibit pathogen infection through diverse mechanisms: on the one hand, they can promote the synthesis of compounds like methyl salicylate to activate systemic acquired resistance against pathogens; on the other hand, secondary metabolites act as phytoalexins to directly inhibit microbial pathogens by disrupting pathogen membrane integrity, interfering with microbial metabolism, or inducing oxidative stress. Some metabolites additionally inhibit the synthesis and secretion of pathogen virulence factors. Furthermore, developing novel green pesticides based on plant secondary metabolites has become a highly promising research direction in the field of plant protection. This review systematically summarizes the multifunctional roles of plant secondary metabolites in plant-microbe interactions, detailing their involvement in activating plant immunity and outlining the molecular regulatory networks underpinning pathogen defense.

Peach shoot blight caused by Diaporthe amygdali (anamorph Phomosis amygdali) is a significant fungal disease in major peach-producing regions of southern China, which has severely hindered the development of peach industry and resulted in substantial economic losses for peach farmers. This paper presents a comprehensive review on its historical occurrence, distribution, damage, as well as biological characteristics of the causing pathogen, pathogen detection, disease cycle, and integrated prevention and control strategies for the disease. Furthermore, potential issues are analyzed and directions for future research are proposed. The review provides a reference for further studies on peach shoot blight.

Rice is an important grain crop in the world. Although some genes that confer resistance to rice blast and bacterial blight, two important diseases threatening rice production, have been identified in rice plants, the corresponding resistance gene resources remain scarce. In this study, we found that the transcription factor OsEIL4 is involved in regulating rice resistance to these two rice diseases. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays showed that the expression of OsEIL4 was markedly induced upon Magnaporthe oryzae (M. oryzae) or Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) infection. Moreover, compared with wild-type rice plants, Oseil4 (CRISPR/Cas9-based OsEIL4 knockout) and OsEIL4-RNAi rice lines were more susceptible, while OsEIL4-OX (overexpression) plants were more resistant to M. oryzae and Xoo. Further qPCR analysis of the transcript levels of the marker genes of ethylene pathway and defense-related genes OsPR1a and OsPR5 exhibited that they were downregulated in Oseil4 lines but upregulated in OsEIL4-OX lines, suggesting that OsEIL4, which functions as a positive regulator in ethylene pathway, mediates rice resistance by modulating PR genes expression. Subcellular localization and yeast-one-hybrid assay results confirmed that OsEIL4 has transcriptional activity, indicating that it may regulate rice disease resistance by exercising transcriptional regulatory function. This study explores a gene resource with broad-spectrum resistance, providing a new possibility for molecular breeding of rice disease resistance.

Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV)-caused sugar beet rhizomania is the most important viral disease in sugar beet, severely affecting beet yield and sugar content. BNYVV is persistently transmitted by Polymyxa betae, a root-specific parasitic plasmodiophorid. The resting spores of Polymyxa betae can survive in soil for long periods of time. Thus, the viral disease is difficult to be eradicated once it occurs. Currently, plan-ting resistant varieties is the only way to reduce losses caused by the disease. In recent years, the large-scale planting of single resistant varieties leads to emergence of resistance-breaking BNYVV isolates in sugar beet producing areas worldwide, including Xinjiang and Heilongjiang in China. These virus strains have broken the antiviral activity of the resistance varieties, leading to more severe rhizomania. This paper reviews the research overview of sugar beet rhizomania, focuses on recent research progress on BNYVV-plant-vector interactions, and prospects future research directions for urgent breakthroughs.

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by the Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC), is a globally significant fungal disease that poses a severe threat to wheat yield and quality. Due to the lack of resis-tant cultivars, chemical control has long been the primary strategy for managing FHB. However, with the growing demand for green and sustainable agriculture, biological control has become an increasingly important component of integrated disease management systems. In recent years, numerous biocontrol microorganisms have been identified and applied for FHB control, demonstrating considerable practical potential. This review summarizes microbial resources available for managing wheat FHB, outlines the underlying biocontrol mechanisms, evaluates the current status of biocontrol formulations development, and discusses the challenges associated with their application. Finally, we propose strategies to improve the development and utilization of biocontrol agents, aiming to provide theoretical and technological support for the sustainable management of FHB in wheat.

Wheat stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici, is a typical airborne disease that poses a serious threat to wheat production. Understanding the inoculum sources and migration pathways of stripe rust is of great significance for formulating effective disease management strategies. This review systematically summarizes the progress made over the past 70 years by 4 generations of rust researchers in identifying the sources and migration pathways through field surveys, population genetic analyses, and air trajectory simulations. An integrated research framework is proposed, emphasizing field investigation as the foundation, population genetics as the core, and air trajectory simulations as a means of validation. The review also discusses the potential to refine and adjust these routes through the integration of emerging technologies, and proposes a shift from qualitative to quantitative research, thereby contributing to the development of sustainable disease management strategies.

Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV) has been spreading rapidly in tomato-producing areas around the world in recent years, causing severe economic losses. Symptoms of suspected ToBRFV infection appeared on tomatoes in Jianshui, Yunnan Province, and caused harm to the surrounding tomato production areas. In this study, the tomato samples suspected of being infected with ToBRFV in the Yunnan Jianshui field were identified by electron microscopy and RT-PCR. RT-PCR amplified the whole genome sequence of the virus, and the phylogenetic tree was constructed to analyze the evolutionary relationship of the viruses. The results showed that the rod-shaped virions, about 18 nm × 300 nm, with the typical structural characteristics of Tobamovirus, were found in the diseased tomato fruits.The target segment of 591 bp was amplified by RT-PCR using ToBRFV-specific detection primers.The Blast result in NCBI showed that this segment shared the highest identity (more than 99.00%) with the ToBRFV. We named this ToBRFV isolate as ToBRFV-2022-JS (GenBank accession number:OR593752). Sequencing result revealed that the complete sequence of ToBRFV-2022-JS was 6 386 nt, with four ORFs encoding the 126 kDa and 183 kDa replicates, the 30 kDa movement protein (MP), and the 17.5 kDa capsid protein (CP), respectively. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that this isolate was the closest relative to ToBRFV Yinchuan isolate (GenBank accession number: OR500698.1), with 99.73% nucleotide sequence identity. The above results indicated that tomato fruits in Jianshui, Yunnan were infected with ToBRFV. The results provide a basis for the monitoring, prevention, and control of ToBRFV in tomato production areas in Yunnan.

Rice blast, caused by Pyricularia oryzae, is a major biological constraint to rice production in China. It frequently causes outbreaks and epidemics across all rice-growing regions, posing a serious threat to high and stable yields. This study reviews the following aspects concerning rice blast: its occurrence and damage, the biology of P. oryzae and sources of infection, chemical agents for blast control, pathogenesis of P. oryzae and development of targets for green fungicides, avirulence genes of P. oryzae and major blast resistance genes in rice, mechanisms underlying rice blast resistance, and challenges in evaluating blast resistance in rice varieties. Furthermore, it outlines future research priorities for the green prevention and control of rice blast, aimed at enhancing sustainable management strategies for this disease in China.

Rice viruses pose a significant threat to global rice production, and their pathogenic mechanisms involve intricate interactions between the viruses and host plants. During pathogenesis, rice viruses employ diverse strategies to manipulate host cellular processes and promote viral infection and replication. Emerging research has uncovered common mechanisms underlying the pathogenicity of different rice viruses, suggesting the existence of potentially conserved targets for antiviral interference. This review summarizes recent global advances in rice virus research, systematically elucidating the distinct pathogenic mechanisms among various rice viruses while highlighting conserved molecular strategies shared by viral pathogenicity factors. The insights presented aim to facilitate the development of broad-spectrum antiviral rice breeding and effective disease management strategies. In addition, future research directions for elucidating the molecular mechanisms of rice virus pathogenesis are outlined.

Gene editing enables precise modification of specific genomic loci and has been widely used in plant disease resistance engineering. This technology is built upon programmable nucleases that have evolved through successive generations: zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated proteins (CRISPR-Cas) systems. The latter now dominates as the mainstream platform owing to its high efficiency and ease of programming. In addition to conventional targeted knockout mutagenesis, precision tools such as base editing, prime editing, and targeted integration have been progressively optimized and implemented in plant systems. In plant disease research, these technologies not only facilitate functional genomics studies but also accelerate the discovery of novel disease resistance genes through high-throughput functional gene screening and saturation mutagenesis libraries construction. Furthermore, they provide multidimensional strategies for creating disease-resistant germplasms. This review synthesizes the evolution of gene editing technologies and highlights their applications in crop disease resistance research, including the development of edited materials for wheat powdery mildew resistance, rice blast and bacterial blight resistance, as well as other critical pathosystems. This establishes actionable frameworks for mechanistically dissecting plant immunity and advancing precision breeding for sustainable crop protection.

A wide variety of microorganisms inhabit the surfaces and interiors of the plants. These microorganisms and their functional substances are collectively referred to as the plant microbiome, which has an impact on a series of basic life activities of plants, such as nutrient acquisition, immune regulation, and stress tolerance. This article focuses on the latest research progress of the plant microbiome, elaborating on the formation rules of the plant microbiota and its regulatory mechanisms on host phenotypes, and deeply exploring the applications of the plant microbiome in disease control. Moreover, in view of the controversial points regarding the role of the plant microbiota in triggering or exacerbating diseases, this article further discusses the emerging research paradigm of the pathobiome, as well as its action mechanisms and driving factors. In the future, through the cross integration of artificial intelligence, multi-omics technologies, and classical plant pathology research techniques, the formation mechanisms of the symbiotic state and pathogenic state of the plant microbiome will be deeply revealed. This will lay an important theoretical foundation for accurately exploring and utilizing the beneficial traits of the plant microbiome, establishing an efficient, safe, and environmentally friendly plant disease control system, and promoting sustainable agricultural development.

Tobacco black shank, caused by Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae, is a devastating soil-borne disease that severely impacts tobacco production. In this study, over 16 000 microbial strains were isolated from tobacco rhizosphere soils collected across eight counties (districts) in Yuxi City, Yunnan Province using the dilution plate method. Through the plate confrontation assay, seven strains exhibiting significant antagonistic activity against P. parasitica var. nicotianae were selected. Pot experiments demonstrated that all seven antagonistic strains could effectively control tobacco black shank, with strain CJ-S-5292 showing the highest control efficacy of 75.79% and exhibiting excellent root colonization capability. Based on morphological characteristics, Physiological and biochemical properties, and phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA and gyrB gene sequences, CJ-S-5292 was identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens. Further investigations revealed that CJ-S-5292 not only significantly inhibited mycelial growth of P. parasitica var. nicotianae but also induced morphological abnormalities including increased branching and fragmentation of hyphae. The cell-free fermentation supernatant of CJ-S-5292 also showed remarkable inhibitory effects on pathogen growth. Comparative studies of application methods indicated that root irrigation (72.22% control efficiency) and combined treatment (75.91%) were significantly more effective than foliar spraying (42.59%). Field trials further confirmed that root irrigation with CJ-S-5292 achieved 66.62% disease control efficiency, comparable to conventional chemical fungicides. This study demonstrates that B. amyloliquefaciens CJ-S-5292 possesses outstanding biocontrol potential, providing a high-quality microbial resource for the green control of tobacco black shank disease.

Cucumber seedling damping-off caused by Pythium aphidermatum is one of the main soil-borne diseases seriously affecting the survival of cucumber seedlings. With the expansion of eggplant cultivation area in greenhouse, the occurrence and damages of the disease are increasing year by year. In this study, a bacterial strain ZF514, capable of producing volatile substance with antagonistic effect against P. aphidermatum, was isolated from rhizosphere soil of healthy cucumber plants in Hangzhou, China. According to morphological cha-racteristics, physiological and biochemical properties, and multi-gene (16S rDNA-gyrA-rpoB) phylogenetic analysis, strain ZF514 was identified as Bacillus velezensis. Strain ZF514 also exhibited significant antagonistic effects on the 5 common phytopathogenic fungi by dual culture on two-section of a Petri dish. The results of pot experiments showed that simulated fumigation treatment of soil with strain ZF514 significantly reduced disease incidence of cucumber seedling damping-off, and the control effect reached 63.69%. In summary, the volatile substance-producing B. velezensis strain ZF514 has potential to be explored as an environment-friendly microbial fumigant against soil-borne diseases.

Fusarium solani, known for its extensive host range, is the causal agent of the destructive root rot disease in agriculture production. Secreted proteins play important roles in the infection of host plants by phytopathogenic fungi. To identify the secreted proteins and effectors in F. solani, we performed an in-depth analysis of the F. solani genome in this study. Among the total 17654 genomic proteins, 1032 proteins were predicted to be the candidate secreted proteins by using SignalP, TMHMM, WoLF PSORT and PredGPI softwares, accounting for 5.85% of the total proteins in F. solani. Among them, 258 proteins were predicated to be carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) by using the dbCAN3 software, with the glycoside hydrolase family being the most abundant. Furthermore, 185 secreted proteins were predicated to be candidate effectors, with 183 sequences being annotated in the PHI database. By employing a virus-based transient expression system, we investigated the effect of the 5 candidate effectors annotated for increased virulence on BAX-triggered programmed cell death, and the result showed that the two effectors (XP_046140852.1 and XP_046131041.1) could suppress BAX-triggered programmed cell death in N. benthamiana. These findings provide not only an important reference for further analysis of the pathogenic molecular mechanism of F. solani but also a theoretical basis for understanding the interactions between F. solani and host plants.

Clubroot caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae has been a major threat to the production of crucife-rous vegetables, screening and identifying antagonistic bacteria with potential application is therefore most important for the bio-control of the disease. In this study, endophytic bacteria were isolated from root tissues of healthy Chinese cabbage in the field where clubroot disease occurred seriously. Using Phytophthora capsici as an indicator, a bacterial strain JP2 with biocontrol effect on Chinese cabbage clubroot was obtained by both dual-culture test and pot experiment in greenhouse. Combined with morphological characteristics, physiological and biochemical properties, and 16S rDNA-based phylogenetic analysis, the strain JP2 was identified as Pseudomonas brassicacearum. The fermentation broth of JP2 (culturing for 48 h) displayed a chitinase activity of 0.034 U·mL^-1, cellulose decomposition capacity (H value) of 1.89, and siderophore activity of 57.24%. Fluorescein siderophore (PVD)- and 2, 4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG)-synthesizing genes were identified in the genome of strain JP2. In addition, JP2 exhibited good antagonistic effects on the six common phytopathogenic fungi, indicating its broad inhibitory spectrum against plant fungal diseases. The crude extract of JP2 showed good lethal effect on resting spores of P. brassicae, with a mortality rate of 44.44%. At 30 d post-inoculation, the colonization density of JP2 in the rhizosphere soil of Chinese cabbage remained at 3.03×10² CFU·g^-1, significantly reducing the number of resting spores of P. brassicae in the soil. The control effect of JP2 on P. brassicae in pot experiment was 58.83 %. These results indicate that JP2 strain has good biocontrol potential against Chinese cabbage clubroot.

The growth, development, environmental adaptation, and infection processes of plant pathogenic fungi are dynamically orchestrated through multi-layered molecular networks, with post-translational modifications (PTMs) functioning as critical "molecular hubs" coordinating these biological and pathogenic programs. This paper reviews several important types of PTMs in plant pathogenic fungi, including phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, lipidation, novel acylation, redox modifications, and ADP-ribosylation. It explores their regulatory mechanisms in the biological and pathogenic processes of plant pathogenic fungi, summarizes the main strategies and methods for studying PTMs, analyzes the relationship between PTMs and plant disease control, and proposes future perspectives in the study of PTMs governing the pathogenesis of plant pathogenic fungi. The aim is to provide a theoretical foundation for deciphering the pathogenic mechanisms of plant pathogenic fungi and innovating sustainable disease management approaches.

Fludioxonil is the main fungicide used for the prevention and control of vegetable gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea. To determine the resistance status of B. cinerea to fludioxonil in Shanxi Province, 312 B. cinerea isolates were obtained from Shanxi Province and their resistance level to fludioxonil was investigated by using the hyphal growth rate method. The mutation sites in the Bos1 gene and biological phenotypes of fludioxonil-resistant B. cinerea isolates, and the cross-resistance between fludioxonil and the other 4 fungicides (pyraclostrobin, difenoconazole, pyrimethanil and prochloraz) in these resistant isolates were studied. The results showed that the resistance frequency of the tested B. cinerea isolates to fludioxonil was 7.37%, with the resistance level mainly in a low and medium level, and only 2 isolates showing high resistance to fludioxonil were found. All the resistant isolates had mutation in Bos1 gene, mainly in the TAR, HAMP and REC domains, with resistance types of F127S, V287G, I365N, I365S, Q369P+N373S, V1136I and A1259T. Additionally, it was found that the hyphal growth rate, sclerotium production, sporulation capacity and pathogenicity of the resistant isolates were lower than those of the susceptible isolates, indicating compromised fitness. There was no cross-resistance between fludioxonil and the 4 tested fungicides, and fludioxonil can therefore be used to control grey mold in rotation or in combination with these fungicides. This study provides a theoretical basis for rational utilization of fungicides in chemical control of grey mold disease.

Polygonatum kingianum Coll. et Hemsl., a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the family Liliaceae, has special medicinal and dietary values. Rhizome rot, usually leading to the decrease of yield and quality, is a frequently occurred disease on P. kingianum in Yunnan Province. In this study, diseased P. kingianum samples with typical symptoms of rhizome rot were collected, and a representative fungal strain 19-1 was obtained by tissue isolation and single spore purification. The pathogenicity of strain 19-1 to P. kingianum was tested and confirmed by irrigating inoculation of plant seedlings with spore suspension (1×10⁶ spores·mL^-1). According to morphological characteristics and multigene-based phylogenetic analysis results, strain 19-1 was identified as Fusarium concentricum. This is the first report of F. concentricum causing rhizome rot on P. kingianum. Our results provide a theoretical basis for further investigation of the epidemiology and integrated control of the disease.

Wheat Fusarium crown rot (FCR) is a soil-borne disease caused by F. pseudograminearum. The pathogen can produce various mycotoxins and cause wheat plants with white head, which poses a serious threat to wheat yield and food security. In order to clarify the inhibitory effects of tebuconazole on different growth stages of F. pseudograminearum and the efficacy of tebuconazole in controlling FCR, the effects of tebuconazole on mycelial growth, conidial germination, germ tube elongation and sporulation of F. pseudograminearum were studied, and the field control efficacy test was carried out. The results showed that the EC₅₀ value of tebuconazole on mycelial growth of F. pseudograminearum was (0.056 0±0.032 1) μg·mL^-1, and the EC₅₀ value on conidial germination was > 50 μg·mL^-1. By comparing the activity of tebuconazole on three F. pseudograminearum strains at mycelial growth, sporulation, conidial germination and germ tube elongation stagey, it was found that the EC₅₀ value of conidial germination was the highest (> 8 μg·mL^-1) while EC₅₀ values of germ tube elongation and sporulation were the lowest (< 0.01 μg·mL^-1). The teratogenic effect was increased as the concentration of tebuconazole higher. The results of field control efficacy of 430 g·L^-1 tebuconazole FS on FCR at different growth stages of wheat showed that the relative control effects at jointing stage of wheat were 67.38 % and 71.85 % for Yichuan experimental field and Xin 'an experimental field, respectively. At the late filling stage, the relative control effect for Yichuan experimental field was 37.19 %, and for Xin 'an experimental field it was 36.89 %. At the milky stage, the white head ratio of wheat in Yichuan experimental field was 6.30 %, and that was 7.21 % in Xin'an experimental field. There was no significant difference in the control efficacy between 430 g·L^-1 tebuconazole FS and the control fungicide 25 g·L^-1 fludioxonil FS. There was also no significant change in 1000-grain weight after treatment with the two fungicides compared with the control, indicating that wheat seeds dressed with tebuconazole FS did not affect the quality of wheat grains in the coming year. The results showed that tebuconazole had a strong inhibitory efficacy on mycelial growth, sporulation and germ tube elongation of F. pseudograminearum, and field experiments showed that tebuconazole seed dressing could effectively control FCR.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea), which is widely cultivated across the world, provides high-quality vegetable oil, protein, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins for humans. However, in field conditions, the peanut is easily affected by various biotic and abiotic stresses. Diplodia gossypina is the dominant pathogen causing severe collar rot on peanuts. To dissect the pathogenic mechanism of D. gossypina, genome sequencing analysis was performed by using the D. gossypina strain A20_4. The sequencing data showed that the genome assembly size of D. gossypina A20_4 is 43.03 Mb with a GC content of 54.91%. The de novo assembly identified a total of 10,745 genes, containing 41,526 coding sequences and 2.20% of repeat sequences, of which 6,461 genes (60.13%) were annotated using BlastP from GO annotation, 3,245 genes (30.20%) and 3,093 genes (28.79%) were annotated from KOG and KEGG annotations, respectively. Meanwhile, the secreted proteins and effectors in 10,745 protein sequences encoded by the whole genome of D. gossypina A20_4 were analyzed, and the results showed that there are 790 secreted protein genes including 220 carbohydrate-active enzymes and 224 potential effector proteins. The functions of 222 potential effector proteins can be annotated by PHI-base. According to the annotation results, 12 key pathogenic factors were identified in D. gossypina A20_4. Moreover, a serine/threonine protein kinase SNF1 gene required for autophagy process was identified and analyzed. Deciphering the whole genome of D. gossypina A20_4 provides us with novel insights into understanding evolution, pathogenic molecular mechanism, host-pathogen interaction, and many other complexities of the pathogen.

Hydrangea macrophylla, as one of the three major garden plants worldwide, has high ornamental and economic value. In March 2023, severe leaf spots were observed on H. macrophylla in the greenhouse in Xiqing District, Tianjin. Tissue separation was carried on to gain a pure strain that caused brown leaf spot on H. macrophylla, and its pathogenicity was confirmed based on Koch's postulates. According to morphological features and phylogenetic analyses of rDNA-ITS, GAPDH, and Alt a1 gene, the pathogen was identified as Alternaria alternata. This is the first report of A. alternata causing leaf spot on H. macrophylla in China, which is going to pave the road for disease diagnosis and effective control strategies.

The bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas delivers type III effector proteins (T3Es) into plant cells via its type III secretion system (T3SS), subverting host immunity, metabolism, and phytohormone signaling networks, ultimately causing devastating diseases such as bacterial wilt and leaf blight. This review systematically summarizes the functional diversity of Xanthomonas T3Es and their molecular mechanisms: Transcription activator-like (TAL) effectors activate host gene expression by binding to specific promoter elements, while non-TAL effectors suppress plant immune responses via post-translational modifications (e.g., ubiquitination, phosphorylation) or protein-protein interactions. To counter pathogen infection, plants have evolved multiple defense strategies, including NLR (nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat) receptor-mediated effector-triggered immunity (ETI), "executor" genes that hijack TAL effectors via EBE (effector-binding element) traps to induce hypersensitive responses, and mutations in susceptible gene promoters conferring resistance. By deciphering these molecular interactions between Xanthomonas T3Es and host plants, this review provides critical insights and technical strategies for developing eco-friendly plant disease management strategies.

Botrytis cinerea, a phytopathogenic fungi with a wide host range, can cause gray mold disease in many important crops. During infection of plant, B. cinerea secretes numerous cell death-inducing proteins (CDIPs) to induce host cell death, which as a result promotes its infection. In this study, we analyzed the secreted proteome during the infection stage of B. cinerea and identified a secreted protein BcXYG3, which contains GH12 and fCBD domains. Transiently expression of BcXYG3 rather than BcXYG3^Δsp (BcXYG3 without a signal peptide) in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves could induce cell death, suggesting that BcXYG3 possibly functions in plant cell apoplastic space. The expression of BcXYG3 was upregulated during the infection stage of B. cinerea. However, deletion or over-expression of BcXYG3 did not significantly affect the pathogenicity, growth rate, conidial production, and some stress tolerance of the pathogen. In addition, infiltration of purified BcXYG3 into N. benthamiana leaves could trigger plant resistance and the expression of defense-related genes. In conclusion, the secreted protein BcXYG3 of B. cinerea can trigger cell necrosis and resistance in plant, playing significant roles in the interaction between B. cinerea and host plant. The result is helpful for clarifying the mechanism underlying B. cinerea-plant interaction and provides theoretical basis and genetic resource for breeding of resistant crop varieties against gray mold disease.

Fusarium wilt of banana, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 (Foc TR4), is a devastating soil-borne disease threatening global banana production. The conidia and chlamydospores in the soil are the primary inoculum for this disease. The C2H2-type zinc-finger transcription factor FlbC in Aspergillus nidulans is a key regulator of conidial development. In this study, the FlbC homolog gene FocFlbC was identified in Foc TR4, and its knockout mutant (ΔFocFlbC) and complemented strain were constructed using protoplast-mediated genetic transformation technology. The subcellular localization and biological functions of this protein were analyzed. The results showed that the FocFlbC protein was localized to the nucleus in both hyphae and conidia. Compared to the wild-type (WT) strain, the ΔFocFlbC mutant exhibited significantly reduced mycelial growth rate on maltose medium, while growth on other carbon sources showed no significant difference; conidiation of the ΔFocFlbC mutant was significantly reduced on all tested carbon sources. Furthermore, the ratio of conidiation between the WT and mutant was highest on maltose medium, differing significantly from other carbon sources. Although the FocFlbC deletion mutation showed no significant effect on biomass accumulation or conidial germination, the mutant exhibited the following phenotypic defects compared to the wild-type strain: reduced tolerance to cell wall and salt stresses; decreased enzymatic activities of α-amylase, filter paper cellulase, and β-1,4-D-glucanase, accompanied by downregulated expression of corresponding hydrolase genes; significantly reduced virulence. These phenotypic defects were restored in the complemented strain. In conclusion, FocFlbC not only regulates hyphal growth on maltose and conidial development of Foc TR4, but also participates in regulating cell wall integrity, salt stress response, hydrolase synthesis, and virulence. The results provide a theoretical basis for further elucidating the molecular mechanism underlying the growth, development, and pathogenicity of Foc TR4.

Soil-borne pathogens are responsible for a variety of crop diseases, leading to substantial economic losses and posing a significant threat to global agricultural productivity. Due to the distinct infection cycle characteristics of soil-borne diseases, accurate quantification of pathogen load in pre-sowing soil is crucial for effective disease management. This review systematically evaluates the development of quantitative detection methods for soil-borne plant pathogens, with a focus on qPCR technology, which is distinguished by its high sensitivity, specificity, and absolute quantification capabilities. We outline standardized protocols and key factors for large-volume soil processing and qPCR-based detection systems. Furthermore, we analyze the correlation between soil pathogen abundance and disease occurrence, as well as its implications in disease risk warning systems. We assess recent advancements in pathogen detection technologies both domestically and internationally, along with emerging trends. This comprehensive review aims to provide researchers, agronomic service providers, and policymakers with a scientific foundation and technical guidance for improving soil-borne disease surveillance and control strategies.

In 2023, a typical sample of root rot of Idesia polycarpa was collected in Zunyi city, Guizhou Pro-vince, China, and the pathogenic strain was obtained by tissue separation method. According to Koch’s rule, pathogenicity test, morphological characteristics and ITS, TEF1-α and TUB multigene phylogenetic analysis, the pathogen was identified as Fusarium solani. The results provided a theoretical basis for the field control of the root rot of Idesia polycarpa. This is the first time to report the root rot of I. polycarpa induced by F. solani in China.

Alternaria panax is one of the main pathogens to infect leaves, stems and fruits, leading to leaf blight, stem necrosis and fruit shriveled of ginseng that seriously threatens ginseng yield and quality. In this study, an Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation system was constructed for Al. panax. To further evaluate the feasibility of the transformation system, the lysine biosynthesis related gene ApLYS2 was knocked out from Al. panax JY15 using this method. The results showed that 23 transformants /10⁶·mL^-1 were obtained under the optimal conditions (48 h and 22℃ for co-cultivation, concentration for OD₆₀₀ 0.6 of AGL-1 and 10⁶·mL^-1protoplast) and the Hyg gene was successfully introduced into Al. panax JY15. Besides, the ApLYS2 was successfully knocked out. The null mutants ΔAplys2-4 and ΔAplys2-7 could not grow on MM media. When lysine was added into MM media, the growth defects of the null mutants ΔAplys2-4 and ΔAplys2-7 were recovered. This study indicated that Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation system for Al. panax was successfully constructed and verified by the knockout of ApLYS2, providing an effective genetic transformation technique for studying the pathogenic mechanism of Al. panax.

Banana Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), is a devastating soil-borne disease that poses a severe threat to global banana production. Biological control constitutes an essential component in the integrated management system of the disease. This study characterized the diversity of root endophytic bacterial communities in two diploid (Musa acuminata ‘Siam Ruby’, Musa balbisiana) and two triploid (Musa acuminata ‘Tianbao’, Musa × paradisiaca ‘Dwarf Plantain’) banana cultivars cultivated under the same ecological conditions through 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing (V5-V7 regions). The results demonstrated higher diversity in diploid root bacterial endophytes compared to triploid plants; distinct differences in bacterial community structure were observed between ploidy types, with diploid roots showing notably greater relative abundance of biocontrol-associated genera, such as Bacillus and Bradyrhizobium. Fourteen endophytic bacterial strains with antagonistic activity against Foc were isolated from diploid cultivars Musa ornata and Musa acuminata ‘Siam Ruby’. Among these, two Bacillus velezensis strains (ZB-1 and Z-7) significantly reduced the severity of banana Fusarium wilt caused by Foc in pot experiments. The lipopeptide extracts from both strains disrupted the morphology of Foc conidia and hyphae, resulting in a 99.02% and 98.67% reduction in sporulation capacity, respectively. Meanwhile, the lipopeptide extracts caused damage to the hyphal biomembrane system and inhibited lipid metabolism. This study demonstrates that diploid banana plants harbor abundant beneficial and antagonistic bacterial communities, providing both a crucial theoretical foundation and a microbial repository for developing microbiota-driven sustainable biocontrol strategies against Fusarium wilt.